Introduction
Fisheries of Hawaii and the U.S. insular Pacific are quite
different from typical industrial and recreational fisheries of the
mainland U.S. Fisheries productivity in coastal waters of these tropical
and subtropical islands may be similar to that in temperate continental
shelf-slope fish communities (Marten and Polovina, 1982), but the higher
species diversity results in more diverse, lower volume fisheries.
Larger, commercial fisheries are often dependent upon deep water,
slope-dwelling species or the highly migratory pelagics such as tunas
and billfishes. Although land masses in this region are small, the U.S.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) surrounding the island areas is immense,
covering over 2 million square miles. Over this broad geographic
expanse, a variety of cultural differences affect fishing practices, and
even those practices present today are significantly different from the
native approaches to fishing methods in Hawaii Smith, 1993) and Guam
(Hensley and Sherwood, 1993). Finally, variations in the population size
and in the fishing pressure on the nearshore ecosystem are marked among
islands, from the highly populated island of Oahu in Hawaii to sparsely
populated islands elsewhere to the mostly uninhabited islands of the
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) and Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands (CNMI).
The objective of this volume is to describe our current knowledge
on the varied fisheries of Hawaii and the U.S.-associated islands of the
Pacific. This introductory paper provides some general background on
fisheries in the region.
Diversity of Fisheries
In the U.S. insular Pacific, the combination of highly complex
habitats, high species diversity, and both native and newly introduced
cultural practices leads to a diversity of fisheries unparalleled in
most other parts of the U.S. Many fisheries are unique to certain
localities, such as that for palolo worm in American Samoa (Craig et.
al., 1993), seasonal juvenile fisheries for rabbitfish in Guam (Hensley
and Sherwood, 1993), and limpet, or opihi fisheries in Hawaii (Smith,
1993). Others are common to all islands, such as the seasonal fisheries
for juvenile bigeye scad in all areas. The adults of these coastal
pelagics, known as akule in Hawaii or atule in American Samoa, represent
the largest volume fishery in nearshore waters but are poorly known in
terms of their resource potential. Nearshore reef resources are often
overexploited in populated areas, a problem perhaps characteristic of
tropical reef fisheries in general (Ferry and Kohler, 1987).
Evolution of Fisheries
With increasing population, changing cultural composition, and
advancing technology, island fisheries have changed in many ways. Prior
to western colonization, indigenous peoples of the islands depended on
the marine environment and had developed a unique knowledge of marine
resources and varied approaches to conservation and management. The
cultural impacts of colonization of the islands by nonindigenous peoples
had marked effects and typically led to the decline of traditional
conservation measures (Johannes, 1978); a concise description of how
this happened in Belau, in the Western Caroline Islands, is provided by
Johannes (1981). In Guam, Spanish persecution of Chammorros led to the
demise of the traditional fishing methods in the mid-1500′s
(Hensley and Sherwood, 1993). Similarly, in Hawaii, it led to the
decline of the traditional management regime of the native Hawaiians
that had long protected nearshore resources (Smith, 1993). Trends in the
fisheries of Hawaii are perhaps the most pertinent to examine, for the
greatest changes have occurred there and these may serve as a warning of
what may come in the other island areas as populations increase there as
well.
Temporal trends of fisheries differ markedly. Shomura(1) described
the differences in fisheries of Hawaii between 1900 and 1986, the early
period based upon a comprehensive data collection scheme and subsequent
analysis by Cobb (1902) and the later period upon State of Hawaii
commercial fishery data collection systems. While the two data sets are
not identical in coverage, they provide useful comparisons. The total
catch nearly doubled in the period considered. Shomura(1) noted several
important trends related to the distance of the fishery from shore.
Catch of coastal species declined by about 80%, while those of
neritic-pelagics (akule, opelu) declined by 40%. Catch of slope and
seamount species increased by 80%, whereas manyfold increases in
offshore pelagics catch were evident.
It is likely that the decline of nearshore fisheries is based
largely upon two factors. First, increasing population and improved
fishing technology led to overfishing in the absence of effective
management and regulations. Gillnet use, for example, is largely
unrestricted, and this can have negative impacts on coral reef fish
populations (Gobert, 1992). Similar concerns are expressed about this
gear in Guam (Hensley and Sherwood, 1993). Second, habitat destruction
from coastal development leads to a decline in availability and quality
of critical habitat area needed to support the reef populations. This
was most evident for species utilizing fishponds, a habitat which may be
similar to estuaries for enhancing juvenile fish production. The decline
of the numbers and function of fishponds in Hawaii has been dramatic.
Cobb (1902) documented the use of fishponds in his survey of fisheries
of Hawaii and even then noted a marked decline in the numbers of
functioning fishponds. While the reasons may differ, declining nearshore
catches in American Samoa over the last two decades (Craig et al., 1993)
are also a concern.
Significant growth in several fishery sectors of Hawaii has been
based upon improved technology and an expanded potential geographic
range of fishing. The combination of increased catch and targeted
high-value markets led to a doubling of the ex-vessel value of Hawaii
fisheries from 1970 to 1990 (Pooley, 1993a). Insular fisheries moved to
increasingly deeper water, and technology allowed the expansion of the
slope fishery in the main Hawaiian islands during the middle of this
century. As these fisheries approached full exploitation, the resource
potential of the NWHI was examined by the National Marine Fisheries
Service, the State of Hawaii, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in
the tripartite Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Investigation in the mid
1970′s to early 1980′s. This program increased knowledge of
resource potential (Uchida and Uchiyama, 1986) and ultimately led to a
geographic expansion of the lobster and bottomfish fisheries to the NWHI
(Polovina, 1993; Haight et al., 1993), providing a marked expansion of
exploitable biomass. Within the NWHI lobster fishery, changing gear from
wire to plastic traps led to significant catch of slipper lobster, which
had been essentially unexploited with wire traps. As these resources
become fully exploited, however, the available habitat for further
expansion of insular fisheries in Hawaii declined markedly.
The pelagic fisheries sector has seen the most dramatic fluctuation
in Hawaii. Improvement of vessel technology increased the range of the
local trolling and handline fleet while other factors led to the
near-demise of the skipjack pole-and-line (“aku”) fleet; with
the closure of the only cannery on Oahu, recent aku catches are nearly
an order of magnitude below the historical peak (Boggs and Kikkawa,
1993). A general trend away from “bulk fisheries” for pelagics
(e.g. fishcake, canned tuna) and development of “quality,”
high price products (e.g. sashimi tuna, transshipped products) has
enhanced the market value of Hawaii’s pelagic fisheries (Pooley,
1993b). Even so, continuing improvements in technology have led to
substantial expansion of the longline fishery and more directed
targeting for bigeye tuna and broadbill swordfish fishery during the
late 1980′s (Boggs and Ito, 1993).
Management Issues
With the decline of traditional management approaches, increasing
population, and development of new fisheries, declines in nearshore
stocks were inevitable (Shomura(1) Hensley and Sherwood, 1993). As
offshore fisheries grew, allocation conflicts have developed (Boggs and
Ito, 1993). With the passage of the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and
Management Act of 1976 (MFCMA) and establishment of the regional fishery
management councils, federal jurisdiction was established and in some
cases established regulations that superseded state or territory
regulations. As the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council
(WPRFMC) began to develop fishery management plans (FMP’s), the
lack of adequate fisheries data became evident. Although time series of
fisheries catch information were available in the state of Hawaii,
questions existed about the quality and consistency of these data for
rigorous analysis (Smith, 1993). Data for Hawaii’s recreational
fisheries, which may represent a large portion of harvest in the
nearshore areas, are virtually unrecorded. In Guam, American Samoa, and
CNMI, however, de novo development of the WPACFIN system began
consistent time series of fisheries data (Hamm, 1993).
Management mechanisms have evolved in Hawaii to reduce fishing
effort in the commercial fisheries, including limited entry (bottomfish,
lobster), moratoria on new entrants to the fishery (longlining), closed
seasons and quota (lobster), and area closures (longlining). Nearshore
areas in Hawaii have received limited protection through Marine Life
Conservation Districts (MLCD’s), a progressive approach taken by
the Division of Aquatic Resources (Smith, 1993). Such closed areas for
fishery management purposes represent an alternative that is consistent
with interest in marine refuges and sanctuaries, and a theoretical basis
for such management is developing (DeMartini, 1993). Closed areas have
also been used for special purposes, such as creating areas for
nonconsumptive use of marine resources (a function served by many Hawaii
MLCD’s) or for protection of sensitive areas. An example of the
latter is protection of the Hawaiian monk seal in the NWHI (Nitta and
Henderson, 1993). Lobster fishing is prohibited inside 10 fm in the NWHI
owing to designation of critical habitat for the monk seal, and
longlining is prohibited within 50 n.mi. of the NWHI owing to fishery
interactions.
Interactions among different scales of fisheries and the differing
agencies responsible for their management present a challenge in many
areas. In the nearshore, non-selective gears like gillnets and lack of
data on their catch make specific management measures difficult and
contribute to stock declines. Moving offshore, many stocks, such as
bottomfish, fall within the jurisdiction of both state (or territory)
and federal management prerogatives; this problem is presently being
faced with bottomfish management in the main Hawaiian Islands. For
pelagics, even though all species are now under the MFCMA, fluctuations
in catch rates of many species mimic many of the changes in Pacific-wide
stocks, suggesting that local fluctuations are in concert with the wider
Pacific stocks, and that local effects often change with environmental
variation. Unfortunately, the wider ranging stocks lack the scientific
basis and institutional structures needed for management (see Doulman,
1987).
Environmental Issues
Improved awareness of environmental issues in the marine
environment is evident in the general public, and Hawaii and the Pacific
islands are no exception. Land-based development associated with
increasing population in island ecosystems is a serious concern owing to
degradation of nearshore habitats (Boehlert et al.(2); Baines and
Morrison, 1990). Examples of problems include point and nonpoint source
pollution, coastal landfills, diversion of freshwater from former
estuarine areas or fishponds, dredging and siltation impacts on corals,
and algal blooms. While such problems may not be evident in all these
island areas, their relationship to human population pressure is well
documented.
Fishing can itself impact the environment; destructive fishing
practices (bleach, dynamite, or nonselective gears) have a long history
in island areas, but public awareness has led to regulations banning or
controlling them. Set gillnet fishing is increasingly viewed as a
nonselective method with relatively high by catch of unintended species,
similar to driftnet fisheries. In Hawaii, however, bills to regulate set
gillnets have routinely been killed politically, although a recent
(1992) resolution calling for studies to improve regulations was passed.
Impacts of fishing on protected species is also a point of
environmental concern. Examples in local fisheries include gillnet
impacts on turtle, and longline takes of turtles, monk seal, and
seabirds (Nitta and Henderson, 1993).
Fishing may also have impacts on biological diversity. Fishing only
selected species in the high diversity ecosystems characterizing these
areas may lead to species replacement, and the new dominant species may
be smaller and less useful for human consumption (Jones, 1982). While
concrete documentation of such species replacement is not evident in
Hawaii and the U.S. insular Pacific fisheries, experimental fishing on
patch reefs at Midway did change community structure and the abundance
of certain prey species (Schroeder, 1989). A more dramatic example is
provided by the trawl fishery in the Gulf of Thailand, where the
dominant fish and large invertebrate species decreased to less than
one-fifth of their original abundance (as reflected in catch rate), and
the squid Loligo spp. became the clear dominant, with perhaps a ten-fold
increase in abundance (Longhurst and Pauly, 1987). Multispecies
management models for tropical fisheries are not sufficiently well
developed to predict these kind of changes (Sainsbury, 1982).
Concluding Remarks
The papers in this volume document the development of this
region’s fisheries and indicate the scope of research that has been
conducted by many agencies; still, it is clear that much remains to be
learned. This is also true for the fisheries management and
environmental protection issues as for the basic biological and
environmental research required to understand the physical processes at
work in these diverse island habitats. For successful fisheries
management, however, it is critical to appreciate the human diversity of
these island areas; this requires a deeper understanding of the social
processes which affect the ability of government to work with the
community on common solutions to fishery management problems. I hope
that this volume contributes the basic background information which can
place the search for such solutions on a firmer scientific footing. (1)
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Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396. Southwest Fish. Cent.
Admin. Rep. H-87-21, 25 p. (2) G. W. Boehlert, P. L. Jokiel, and D. J.
Mackett. 1985. Issues in fisheries habitat conservation and research for
the Hawaiian archipelago and Central Pacific. Honolulu Lab., Southwest
Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396.
Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-85-10, 39 p.
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George Boehlert is with the Honolulu Laboratory, Southwest
Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 2570
Dole St., Honolulu, HI 96822-2396, and the Joint Institute for Marine
and Atmospheric Research, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822.
Mention of trade names or commercial firms does not imply endorsement by
the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA.
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